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French diplomat and statesman Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord is widely credited with the famous observation about the restored Bourbon monarchy: "They have learned nothing, and forgotten nothing." Although directed at eighteenth-century French politics, the statement continues to resonate in international relations. History repeatedly offers lessons, yet nations often approach new crises as though no comparable events have ever occurred.
The ongoing extradition proceedings involving former Ugandan military officer Major General Michael Katungi Mpeirwe have revived an old debate about sovereignty, international law, and the influence of powerful states. The case has generated legal discussion, political commentary, and public debate over whether Uganda should surrender one of its citizens to face criminal proceedings abroad. Regardless of one's opinion on the merits of the case, it raises broader questions that transcend the fate of a single individual.
How sovereign is a sovereign state when confronted by the demands of a global power?
International law recognises extradition as a lawful process through which one state surrenders a suspect or accused person to another for prosecution or punishment. Extradition is generally governed by treaties, domestic legislation, and judicial oversight. It is intended to prevent fugitives from escaping justice simply by crossing borders.
Yet international law does not operate in a political vacuum.
From the earliest writings of Hugo Grotius, often regarded as the father of modern international law, to the twentieth-century theories of Hans Morgenthau, scholars have acknowledged that international relations are shaped not only by legal rules but also by power. Sovereign equality exists as a legal principle, but the practical influence of states varies enormously according to their military, economic, and diplomatic strength.
The United States has developed one of the world's most extensive systems for pursuing transnational crime. American prosecutors routinely seek the extradition of individuals accused of terrorism, narcotics trafficking, cybercrime, organised crime, corruption, and sanctions violations when United States law provides jurisdiction. These requests are channelled through treaties, courts, and diplomatic cooperation rather than through unilateral action in most circumstances.
According to publicly available court documents, Major General Michael Katungi Mpeirwe faces allegations in the United States alongside co-defendants from Bulgaria, Kenya, and Tanzania concerning an alleged conspiracy involving narcotics trafficking and weapons transactions. Those allegations remain before the courts and have not been proven. Like every accused person, the defendants are entitled to the presumption of innocence until guilt is established in accordance with the law.
Nevertheless, the broader significance of the case lies in what it reveals about international cooperation in criminal justice.
History demonstrates that when powerful states develop compelling security or law-enforcement interests, they frequently mobilise extensive diplomatic and legal resources to pursue individuals across borders.
The history of the twentieth century offers numerous examples.
In 1960, Israeli intelligence agents secretly located Adolf Eichmann, one of the principal organisers of the Holocaust, living under an assumed identity in Argentina. He was covertly transported to Israel and placed on trial. Argentina protested that its sovereignty had been violated, and the matter reached the United Nations Security Council, which criticised the breach of Argentine sovereignty while recognising the need to resolve the dispute diplomatically. The episode remains one of the most debated intersections between justice and state sovereignty.
In 1989, the United States launched Operation Just Cause in Panama. Following the military intervention, Panamanian leader Manuel Noriega was captured by American forces and transported to the United States, where he stood trial on drug trafficking charges. The operation demonstrated the extraordinary reach that military power can have when combined with domestic criminal jurisdiction.
The arrest proceedings involving former Chilean President Augusto Pinochet in London in 1998 represented a different legal path. Acting on a Spanish extradition request based on allegations of torture and crimes against humanity, British courts confronted the question of whether a former head of state enjoyed immunity from prosecution abroad. Although Pinochet ultimately returned to Chile on medical grounds, the proceedings transformed international criminal law by reinforcing the principle that certain crimes transcend national borders.
The 1976 Operation Entebbe provides another important lesson, particularly for Ugandans. After an airliner was hijacked and taken to Entebbe Airport, Israeli commandos carried out a long-range military rescue operation on Ugandan soil without the consent of the Ugandan government. The operation succeeded in rescuing most of the hostages while provoking enduring debate about sovereignty, self-defence, and the legality of cross-border military operations. Whether one views the raid as a lawful act of necessity or a violation of Uganda's territorial integrity, it demonstrated that powerful states may sometimes act decisively when they perceive their national interests or citizens to be under grave threat.
The Iraq War offers another illustration of the interaction between power and justice. Following the overthrow of the Iraqi government, Saddam Hussein was captured by coalition forces in December 2003. He was subsequently tried before the Iraqi High Tribunal rather than an American court. His prosecution reflected both the role of military power in securing custody and the effort to vest criminal accountability in an Iraqi judicial institution.
More recently, the case of Nicolás Maduro, the President of Venezuela, has further illustrated the global reach that the United States seeks to exercise when it considers its national security or law-enforcement interests to be at stake. American prosecutors have accused Maduro and several associates of offences including alleged narco-terrorism, conspiracy to import cocaine into the United States, and weapons-related offences. Maduro has consistently denied the allegations. Whether one agrees with the legal or political dimensions of the case, it nevertheless illustrates the willingness of the United States to assert criminal jurisdiction over foreign leaders whom it believes have violated American law or threatened its interests. Like the earlier examples discussed in this article, the Maduro case demonstrates that the practical reach of a great power often extends well beyond its territorial borders through criminal indictments, diplomatic pressure, sanctions, and international legal cooperation. It is another reminder that, in contemporary international relations, the interaction between law and power remains one of the defining characteristics of the global order.
These historical episodes differ substantially in their legal foundations. Some involved extradition treaties; others involved military intervention, covert intelligence operations, or international criminal law. They should not be conflated. Yet together they underscore a common reality: in international affairs, legal mechanisms often operate alongside geopolitical influence.
The Katungi proceedings therefore raise questions extending beyond the allegations in the indictment. They invite reflection on the balance between judicial independence, treaty obligations, and national sovereignty.
According to the indictment made public by the United States Department of Justice, Major General Michael Katungi Mpeirwe is charged together with Peter Dimitrov Mirchev, a Bulgarian national; Elisha Odhiambo Asumo, a Kenyan national; and Subiro Osmund Mwapinga, a Tanzanian national. Prosecutors allege that the four participated in a conspiracy involving the supply of military-grade weapons and the trafficking of cocaine intended to benefit Mexico's Jalisco New Generation Cartel (CJNG), one of the world's most powerful transnational criminal organisations. The indictment further alleges offences including conspiracy to provide material support to a designated criminal organisation, conspiracy to traffic cocaine destined for the United States, and conspiracy to traffic firearms. These remain allegations before the courts, and every accused person is presumed innocent unless and until proven guilty according to law.
Uganda's courts must determine the matter according to the Constitution, applicable legislation, and the evidence presented before them. That judicial process deserves respect regardless of its outcome.
At the same time, policymakers should appreciate that international cooperation in criminal justice has become a defining feature of the modern world. Globalised finance, organised crime, terrorism, and cybercrime increasingly transcend national boundaries. States therefore cooperate through extradition, mutual legal assistance, and intelligence sharing in ways that were unimaginable a century ago.
This trend is not unique to the United States. European states routinely extradite suspects to one another under regional legal frameworks. African countries have strengthened cooperation through continental and bilateral agreements. International criminal tribunals likewise depend upon states to arrest and surrender accused persons.
The enduring challenge lies in ensuring that the pursuit of justice never eclipses respect for due process, human rights, and judicial independence.
Power may influence international politics, but legitimacy ultimately depends upon law.
Perhaps that is the most enduring lesson history offers.
States rise and decline. Governments change. Alliances shift. Military power expands and contracts.
Yet societies that remain faithful to the rule of law command a form of authority that military strength alone cannot secure.
Talleyrand's warning therefore deserves renewed attention.
"They have learned nothing, and forgotten nothing."
History is an unforgiving teacher.
The question for every nation is not whether history speaks, but whether those entrusted with public responsibility are willing to listen.
About the Author
Evan Sande Ndahura is a Ugandan political and legal commentator, columnist, poet, and social justice advocate whose writings focus on governance, constitutionalism, democracy, and the political economy of power in Africa. He writes extensively on judicial accountability, electoral justice, human rights, and institutional reform from a Pan-African perspective, maintaining that Africa's enduring liberation will ultimately be secured through the power of the pen rather than the gun.